Friday 11am Tutorial Group; Classification Project Part 1

Friday 11am Tutorial Group;
Nikita Maree, Michael Chatterley, Hamish Halliday, Hilary William Richards, Jordan Davis, Kieran Henderson, Cassandra Richards, Joe Boon, Bronagh Ryan, David Hyde




FOCUS QUESTION: Is there a correlation between the degree/extent of civil liberties and the quality of elections?

ELECTION AXIS (x)

Question 1)              Is there elections for the executive and the legislative?

Yes, there are elections for both – 4 Points
Some, there are elections for either legislative or executive – 2 Points
No, no elections exist for legislative and executive government – 0 Points

Definition: An election can be defined as “a formal decision making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold public office”. For the purpose of this exercise we are looking at whether the population has the right to vote for the members of the legislative and executive government specifically.
Guide to answers:
There are elections for both - those who control the creation of laws etc and the daily administration of the state are a good representative of the peoples interests. If there are elections held for both (or if both are elected during the same election period) then the regime in question is given four points on the election axis.
There are elections for either legislative or executive: Situations where there is only an election for executive or alternatively only elections for the legislative
There are no elections for legislative or executive: Then the regime is considered less free than where there is elections for either legislative or executive

Sources: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/182308/election/229021/Executive-elections
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislature


Question 2 )             To what extent does Universal Suffrage occur?

An adult individual has no right to vote in an election/No Suffrage – 0 Points
An adult individual of a certain race, ethnicity, religion, gender or other such grouping can vote/Partial Suffrage - 2 Points
All Adult individuals can vote regardless of their race, ethnicity, religion, gender or other such grouping/Universal Suffrage - 4 Points

Definition:
When distinguishing between the 3 given levels of suffrage – no, partial or universal – we must give a broad definition. Suffrage could broadly be defined as the right or privilege to vote for a given candidate or issue. The levels of suffrage determine the freedom an adult individual has to vote.
Guide to answers:
The level of suffrage has been divided into three categories ranging from no suffrage to universal suffrage. It is through this method that countries can be organised into groups for an extended understanding of their political system.
No Suffrage: refers to situations where there is the inability to vote entirely. This is most common in states where elections do not occur
Partial Suffrage: refers to situations where an adult individual who belongs to a particular grouping can vote while there maintains some discrimination against other groupings. Historically adult women have been unable to vote or have had a restricted vote.
Universal Suffrage: refers to situations where an individual’s right to vote is not restricted to his or her gender, race, ethnicity, religious beliefs, sexual identity or any other such grouping
The importance of universal suffrage in democracies is growing. Some of the most well-known liberal democracies such as the UK, USA and New Zealand only introduced specifically women suffrage in the late 1890’s onwards while the United Nations stated women’s suffrage under the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of discrimination against Women in 1979.
http://www.un.org/en/globalissues/women/

Question 3)              To what extent does plurality exist?

No competition/competition provide no legitimate alternative - 0 points
Dominant party, competition exists but poses no threat - 1 point
Dominant party exists, but competition beginning to emerge - 2 points
Dominant party facing competition that poses legitimate opposition - 3 points
Fully competitive elections and legitimate competition - 4 points

Definition:   
When one is required to distinguish and analyse the level of plurality a state operates in (or does not) we must employ a definition. For the purposes of this task we will apply Dingping Guo’s definition. Guo states that “Political pluralism holds that political power in society does not lie with the electorate, nor with small concentrated elites, but is distributed between a wide number of groups. These groups may be trade unions, interest groups, business organisations, and a multitude of different possible formal and informal coalitions.” We must also acknowledge that pluralism does not just require the presence of opposition parties, but that it also extends to legitimacy of opposition, they must provide a credible alternative for voters. We will use a combination of these as our working definition of pluralism.
Guide to answers:   
I have separated the degree of plurality into four categories, in order to classify the different levels that can be found in countries all over the world.
No competition/competition provide no legitimate alternative - This category classifies a regime with only one party (essentially authoritarian) or were the opposition is so insignificant it does not register and is essentially a facade or smokescreen for the appearance of democracy.
Dominant party, competition exists but poses no threat - This category classifies a regime where there is a dominant party and competition exists but poses no threat as they are not a legitimate alternative. One example would be Japan during the 1955 system and the continual rule of the Liberal Democratic party until 1993.
Dominant party exists, but competition beginning to emerge - This category classifies a regime where the dominant party is and continues to be the incumbent. However legitimate alternatives and competion are beginning to emerge and as such the regime is moving towards full plurality.
Dominant party facing competition that poses legitimate opposition - This category classifies a regime where this is legitimate opposition, however the number of opposition parties is limited and they are hindered by comparatively small funding and are typically splintered internally.
Fully competitive elections and legitimate competition - This category classifies a regime where the elections are highly competitive and there is a plethora of legitimate alternatives. Essentially a multiparty system where both minority and majority views are translated into politics.

Sources:
Guo, Dingping. "Japanese Political Studies in China: Progress, Problems and Prospects." Japanese Journal of Political Science 11, no. 03 (2010): 333-54.

Question 4:              To what extent is electoral fraud present?

Electoral fraud is very highly prevalent, including high levels of voter intimidation and violence – 0 Points
Electoral fraud highly prevalent, including some level of voter intimidation or violence – 1 Point
Electoral fraud exists, restricted to manipulation of electoral mechanisms – 2 Points    
Minor instances of electoral fraud – 3 Points           
No electoral fraud – 4 Points                                                                     

Definition: Electoral fraud is illegal interference with the process of an election. Acts of fraud affect vote counts to by increasing the vote share of the favoured candidate, decreasing the vote share of the rival candidates, or both. The mechanisms involved include illegal voter registration, intimidation at polls, improper vote counting, vote buying, and ballot stuffing.
Guide to answers:
High Electoral Fraud - classifies states where electoral fraud is extensive, widespread and seen as the norm. Elections in these states may purely be symbolic and only exist to give legitimacy to a dictatorship. Examples include Turkmenistan. This category also includes states where widespread violence and voter intimidation is present during elections, for example Afghanistan.
High Electoral Fraud and Some Violence or Intimidation - classifies states where electoral fraud is prevalent and there may be some level of voter intimidation or violence. Examples include Egypt during the 2011-12 Parliamentary elections.
Electoral Fraud exists but is limited  –classifies states where electoral fraud exists but is mostly restricted to the manipulation of electoral mechanisms and vote buying/vote rigging. Examples include the 2012 Russian Presidential election.
Minor Electoral Fraud–classifies states where there is a minor level of electoral fraud or irregularities which may/may not have an impact on the outcome of the election. Examples include the 2004 USA Presidential elections
No Electoral Fraud- classifies states where electoral fraud does not exist and all elections are free and fair.                           


Question 5)              What is the degree of democratic culture within the State?

High Levels of Democratic Culture – 4 Points
Moderate Levels of Democratic Culture – 2 Points
Low/ None Levels of Democratic Culture – 0 Points

Definition:
Whether democratic values of individual liberty and active participation within political decision making are held. In a society with a high degree of democratic culture the public are protected from arbitrary state action, which is viewed as tyranny, and is responsible for the make-up of the government through free, fair, and legally mandated regular elections.   
Guide to answers:
High level of democratic culture - A majority of the society actively participates in regular free and fair elections, which are enshrined in law. In between election times the citizenry takes an active interest in political decisions through the free media, makes public submissions to legislation being drafted, and keeps up with the political discourse. The society does not tolerate the government violating its freedoms. Liberal freedoms are seen as being necessary to promote the health and wellbeing of society, where the people are protected from arbitrary state action. Economic growth is believed to be fostered when the opportunities of each individual are not determined or prevented by the state. Transitions of power are smooth and the government respects the results of the elections. Democratic ideals have been held for a long time and sustained throughout.
Moderate level of democratic culture - Elections are held by law and the society participates. The public takes little interest in political affairs in between elections, the society ignores some governmental violation of its freedoms because it trusts that the government can better protect society that way. The media is partially controlled or otherwise monitored by the state so fair political discussion cannot occur. The government largely respects the outcomes of elections.
Low Level of or No democratic culture - Occasional elections are held as way of legitimising the current holders of executive power or are otherwise corrupted by electoral fraud. The people little or no role in the creation of legislation and the media largely functions as the mouthpiece of the state. The people respect and defend an authoritarian state, viewing it as more effective at keeping the streets safe and fostering economic growth. Liberal freedoms are seen as promoting crime and immoral activities and threatening the unity of the nation. Or there are no elections. The state may be an absolute monarchy or another form of totalitarian dictatorship.

CIVIL LIBERTIES Axis (y)

Question 1)              What are the levels of Bureaucratic Corruption?

High levels of Bureaucratic corruption – 0 points
Moderate level of Bureaucratic corruption- 1 point
Mid-Low level of Bureaucratic corruption-2 points
Low levels of Bureaucratic corruption- 3 points
No Bureaucratic corruption – 4 points

Definition: This study will use Munir Quddus’ definition of Bureaucratic Corruption. “The sale of government property, goods or services by public servants for personal gain” under this classification Bureaucratic corruption includes, extracting bribes for permits, tax avoidance and private individuals receiving economic benefits they would not usually obtain in return for elevation or services.
Guide to answers:
The level of bureaucratic corruption has been divided into five categories ranging from high levels of corruption to no corruption at all. It is through this method that countries can be organised into groups for an extended understanding of their political system.
High levels of Bureaucratic corruption- the public servants act on an almost completely corrupt system where warrants, permits, visas and documents necessary for doing business are issued for goods and services illegally. The rule of law is not recognised by elected politicians and therefore public servants have no trouble in perverting their legal positions.
A moderate level of Bureaucratic corruption- this category describes a country where there is a considerable amount of corruption from the bureaucracy. Due to a lack of recognition of the law, public servants are not audited and if parliament prompts a review of bureaucratic actions it is dismissed.
Mid-Low Levels of Bureaucratic corruption- this category describes a country where there is a fairly high amount of bureaucratic corruption but regular audits of the public sector take place. Countries that fit into this category are moving toward lesser corruption.
Low levels of Bureaucratic corruption- this category describes a country where there is a small amount of bureaucratic corruption. Some public servants receive bribes in return for permits, but it is not usually enough to pose a risk to the democratic integrity of a country. regular audits are permitted
No Bureaucratic corruption- the public servants (bureaucrats) are free from corruption. Their roles are carried out in accordance with the rule of law. Regular checks and audits ensure that the public sector operates legally.

Sources: Bureaucratic corruption and business ethics: The case of the Garment exports from Bangladesh, Munir Quddus, www.bdiusa.org


Question 2)              How are minorities treated?  

The state actively excludes and mistreats minority groups and removes their civil liberties – 0 Points
Instances of minority mistreatment are common and encouraged – 1 Point
Minority groups have many forms of liberties but not quite up to the majority standard – 2 Points
Minority groups have civil liberties although remain largely under-represented within the state – 3 Points
Minority groups are represented and their ways of doing things respected and encouraged – 4 Points

Definition: A minority group can be defined as any group within a state who do not identify with the ‘normalised’ or majority of other citizens.

Explanation- Many states and regimes actively mistreat minorities although many more in-actively marginalise and exclude minorities. These include countries with First Past the Post electoral system which does little to account for minority representation within governments in contrast with the MMP electoral system which actively attempts to give minorities a voice. Active mistreatment of minorities and removal of their civil liberties is fairly rare in that governments attempt to hide discrimination by labelling minorities as ‘subverters’ or terrorists rather than by the real factors which define them ie- Race, Religion, Shared Culture, Ideology.

Question  3)             To what extent is there freedom of speech and media?

No freedom of speech and media – 0 points
Partial freedom of speech and media – 2 points
Moderate freedom of speech and media – 3 points
Complete freedom of speech and media – 4 points

Definition: For the purposes of this assignment, freedom of speech concerns the ability of citizens to express their views on politics and government in a public forum without fear of persecution. This also extends to freedom of the media, which concerns the autonomy of media outlets, including print, television, and internet journalists, to report on political and government activity and distribute this information freely and without interference to citizens and the wider world.
Guide to answers:
I have separated freedom of speech and media into four categories, in order to classify the different levels that can be found in countries all over the world.
No freedom of speech and media – This category classifies a regime with non-existent free speech and a media without any autonomy. All media is state-controlled, and censorship and surveillance is heavy. This classification accurately describes a regime such as China, where recently police have posted notices in public places threatening “criminals” who circulate certain views and information, with “beating” and “torture”.
Partial freedom of speech and media – This category classifies a regime that is moving towards freer speech and media. Independent media exists but there is still some interference and persecution from government officials. For example, in the post-election protests in Russia, eight independent journalists were arrested and charged with disturbing the public order.
Moderately high freedom of speech and media – This category moves towards Western liberal democracy to classify a country that has high levels of free speech and independent media, but there is still some obstruction of free expression. For example, in the United States during the Occupy Wall Street protests, police mobilised quickly to evict protesters from their camp, manhandling journalists to keep them at a distance and arresting several.
High freedom of speech and media – This category classifies a country with complete freedom of speech and absolute media autonomy, no censorship or surveillance, and no obstruction to information. A country such as Norway would score in this category.
Source: Reporters Without Borders (en.rsf.org)

Question 4)              What is the level of Freedom of Association?

Complete freedom to come together with a group of individuals and express and uphold your shared interest as a collective- 3 points
Moderate amount of freedom to come together with a group of individuals and express and uphold your shared interest as a collective- 2 points
Limited amount of freedom to come together with a group of individuals and express and uphold your shared interest as a collective- 1 point
No freedom to come together with a group of individuals and express and uphold your shared interest as a collective- 0 points

Definition: Freedom of association is the right to be a part of a group or to form a group with the purpose of deliberating over a specific common interest. It also covers the organisation of groups to influence the government and its leaders. Freedom of association is a basic human right and also covers mass protests.

Guide to answers:
Complete freedom of association- This category classes any country which does not oppress any citizen’s right to associate with any group of individuals with a common interest and to express their opinions.
Moderate amount of freedom of association-  This category classes any country that does allow it citizen’s the right to associate with any group of individuals with a common interest and to express their opinions, however, there are some restrictions which can include but are not limited to the shutting down of mass protests and certain civilian groups.
Limited amount of freedom of association- This category classes any country who has a tight reign over any citizen’s right to associate with any group of individuals with a common interest and to express their opinions. Regimes in this category would have put restrictions on particular groupings and have only a select number of groups which will not be persecuted if they express their opinions.
No freedom of association- This category classes any country who denies their civilians the right to associate with any group of individuals with a common interest and to express their opinions. Regimes in this category are suppressing the rights of their citizens.


Question 5)              What is the extent of the separation of Powers?

High Degree of Separation – 4 Points
Moderate Degree of Separation – 2 Points
Minimal Degree of Separation – 0 Points

Definition: The ‘Separation of Powers’ is a model for the governance of a state. Under this model, the state is divided into branches, each with separate and independent powers and areas of responsibility so that no branch has more power than the others (in theory). These branches are normally divided into; the ‘Executive’, ‘Legislature’ and ‘Judiciary’.
Can also include the separation of church and state but in this exercise will not be included in our definition of ‘separation of powers’.
The idea of ‘checks and balances’ is also a part of the model of ‘separation of powers’ and can be seen as the ‘separation of powers’ taken to its full, whereby any one of the branches are prevented from gaining power over the others and being forced to cooperate with each other. (The American system being the prime example of ‘checks and balances’.
Explanation of answers:
High Degree of Separation; where there is complete separation of powers, and a total enforcement, often constitutionally regarding checks and balances. An example of this degree of separation is the United States of America’s Presidential system.
Moderate Degree of Separation; a system where one or more of the branches of government are linked in some way, but not amalgamated so closely that effectively one branch is completely dominating the others, ‘fusion of powers’. For example; Parliamentary systems such as the one in use in the United Kingdom; where the executive and legislative branches are linked, (the Prime Minister and Cabinet coming from, and answerable to the Legislature).
Minimal Degree of Separation: a system where the lines between the branches are either so blurred or are non-existent. Is effectively and in almost all cases a system where the executive has complete dominance over the other branches of government. There is no checks and balances on the dominating branch’s power and it can effectively do whatever it wants because the other branches are either in worst cases non-existent or at best subsidiary to the executive branch.

Axis X Total :
Axis Y Total:
Plot on Graph.

Final Scaling:
0-4    Largely Totalitarian Regime
5-9    Largely Authoritarian Regime
10-14   Hybrid Regime/ Flawed Democracy / Besieged Democracy
15-20   Liberal Democracy